About this list
Sources cited in the main report, the annexes and Appendices A–E and G, in Chicago author-date style. The press and ministerial statements collected in Appendix F are not repeated here; that appendix ends with its own source list. The OECD StatLink tables behind the dataset are documented on the data page.
Sources cited in the main report, the annexes and Appendices A–E and G, in Chicago author-date style (18th edition). The press and ministerial statements collected in Appendix F are not repeated here; that appendix ends with its own source list. The OECD StatLink tables behind the dataset are documented on the data page rather than listed here.
Entries were built by checking each link against the work it is cited for. Where a link is to a working paper or a repository copy and a published version exists, the entry cites the published version and records the link the report uses. Where a field could not be established from a source, it is omitted rather than supplied.
- Abrahamsson, Sara. 2024. “Smartphone Bans, Student Outcomes and Mental Health.” NHH Department of Economics Discussion Paper No. 01. Bergen: Norwegian School of Economics. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4735240.
- Anders, Florentine. 2025. “IQB-Bildungstrend 2024: Leistungen der Neuntklässler auf Tiefstand.” Deutsches Schulportal, October 17, 2025. https://deutsches-schulportal.de/bildungswesen/iqb-bildungstrend-die-wichtigsten-ergebnisse/.
- Arold, Benjamin W., and M. Danish Shakeel. 2021. “The Unintended Effects of Common Core State Standards on Non-Targeted Subjects.” PEPG Working Paper 21-03. Cambridge, MA: Program on Education Policy and Governance, Harvard Kennedy School. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED613142.pdf.
- Aucejo, Esteban M., and Teresa Foy Romano. 2016. “Assessing the Effect of School Days and Absences on Test Score Performance.” Economics of Education Review 55: 70–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.08.007.
- Bakan Kalaycioglu, Dilara, Katherine A. Reynolds, Bethany Fishbein, Eugenio Gonzalez, and Matthias von Davier. 2026. Intended, Implemented, and Attained Mathematics and Science Curricula at the Eighth Grade: Findings from TIMSS 2023. TIMSS 2023 Insights. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. https://timss2023.org/wp-content/uploads/insights/T23_Insights_CurriculumAlignment.pdf.
- Balart, Pau, Matthijs Oosterveen, and Dinand Webbink. 2018. “Test Scores, Noncognitive Skills and Economic Growth.” Economics of Education Review 63: 134–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.12.004.
- Baldi, Stéphane, Ying Jin, Melanie Skemer, Patricia J. Green, and Deborah Herget. 2007. Highlights from PISA 2006: Performance of U.S. 15-Year-Old Students in Science and Mathematics Literacy in an International Context. NCES 2008-016. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008016.pdf.
- Beland, Louis-Philippe, and Richard Murphy. 2016. “Ill Communication: Technology, Distraction and Student Performance.” Labour Economics 41: 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2016.04.004.
- Beneito, Pilar, and Óscar Vicente-Chirivella. 2022. “Banning Mobile Phones in Schools: Evidence from Regional-Level Policies in Spain.” Applied Economic Analysis 30 (90): 153–75. https://doi.org/10.1108/AEA-05-2021-0112.
- Bergbauer, Annika B., Eric A. Hanushek, and Ludger Woessmann. 2024. “Testing.” Journal of Human Resources 59 (2): 349–88. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.0520-10886R1.
- Berne, Jordan S., Brian A. Jacob, Christina Weiland, and Katharine O. Strunk. 2025. “The Impacts of Grade Retention Policy with Minimal Retention.” EdWorkingPaper 25-1188. Providence, RI: Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://edworkingpapers.com/sites/default/files/ai25-1188.pdf.
- Betthäuser, Bastian A., Anders M. Bach-Mortensen, and Per Engzell. 2023. “A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Evidence on Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Nature Human Behaviour 7 (3): 375–85. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01506-4.
- Bleiberg, Joshua. 2021. “Does the Common Core Have a Common Effect? An Exploration of Effects on Academically Vulnerable Students.” AERA Open 7 (1): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584211010727.
- Bone, Jessica K., Feifei Bu, Jill K. Sonke, and Daisy Fancourt. 2025. “The Decline in Reading for Pleasure over 20 Years of the American Time Use Survey.” iScience 28 (9): 113288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2025.113288.
- Borghans, Lex, and Trudie Schils. 2012. “The Leaning Tower of Pisa: Decomposing Achievement Test Scores into Cognitive and Noncognitive Components.” Unpublished working paper, Maastricht University, October 31, 2012. https://www.sole-jole.org/assets/docs/13260.pdf.
- Borgonovi, Francesca, Alessandro Ferrara, and Mario Piacentini. 2021. “Performance Decline in a Low-Stakes Test at Age 15 and Educational Attainment at Age 25: Cross-Country Longitudinal Evidence.” Journal of Adolescence 92: 114–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.08.011.
- Bratsberg, Bernt, and Ole Rogeberg. 2018. “Flynn Effect and Its Reversal Are Both Environmentally Caused.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115 (26): 6674–78. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718793115.
- Brehm, Will, host. 2017. “Hikaru Komatsu & Jeremy Rappleye: Challenging the Commonplace Relationship between Test Scores and GDP.” FreshEd, episode 71, May 1, 2017. Podcast audio. https://freshedpodcast.com/komatsurappleye/.
- Britton, Jack, Christine Farquharson, Luke Sibieta, Imran Tahir, and Ben Waltmann. 2020. 2020 Annual Report on Education Spending in England. London: Institute for Fiscal Studies. https://doi.org/10.1920/re.ifs.2020.0183.
- Bulman, George, and Robert W. Fairlie. 2016. “Technology and Education: Computers, Software, and the Internet.” In Handbook of the Economics of Education, vol. 5, edited by Eric A. Hanushek, Stephen J. Machin, and Ludger Woessmann, 239–76. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
- Burgess, Simon, Deborah Wilson, and Jack Worth. 2013. “A Natural Experiment in School Accountability: The Impact of School Performance Information on Pupil Progress.” Journal of Public Economics 106: 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2013.06.005.
- Burns, Emma C., Katrina J. Thorvaldson, Andrew J. Martin, and Paul Ginns. 2026. “In-Test Effort in PISA Achievement: It Makes a Difference for Students and Schools, but Not Countries.” Large-Scale Assessments in Education 14 (1): 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-026-00288-9.
- Center for Education Policy Research, Harvard University. 2025. “Although No State Improved in Both Math and Reading on the NAEP, the Education Recovery Scorecard Highlights the Work of Over 100 Districts Performing Above Pre-Pandemic Levels in Both Math and Reading.” Education Recovery Scorecard, February 11, 2025. https://cepr.harvard.edu/news/education-recovery-scorecard.
- Clotfelter, Charles T., Helen F. Ladd, and Jacob L. Vigdor. 2010. “Teacher Credentials and Student Achievement in High School: A Cross-Subject Analysis with Student Fixed Effects.” Journal of Human Resources 45 (3): 655–81. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.45.3.655.
- Collins, Todd. 2019. “Mississippi Rising? A Partial Explanation for Its NAEP Improvement Is That It Holds Students Back.” Thomas B. Fordham Institute, December 4, 2019; updated August 5, 2022. https://fordhaminstitute.org/national/commentary/mississippi-rising-partial-explanation-its-naep-improvement-it-holds-students.
- Cosma, Alina, Shynar Abdrakhmanova, Diana Taut, Karen Schrijvers, Carolina Catunda, and Christina Schnohr, eds. 2023. A Focus on Adolescent Mental Health and Well-Being in Europe, Central Asia and Canada. Vol. 1 of Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children International Report from the 2021/2022 Survey. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe. https://www.hbsc.org/new-who-hbsc-international-report-a-focus-on-adolescent-mental-health-and-well-being/.
- COVID-19 School Data Hub. 2023. “District-Monthly Percentage In-Person, Hybrid, or Virtual.” Data Resources, version 3/8/23. Accessed September 14, 2026. https://www.covidschooldatahub.com/data-resources.
- Creative Commons. n.d. “Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).” Accessed September 14, 2026. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
- Cristia, Julián, Pablo Ibarrarán, Santiago Cueto, Ana Santiago, and Eugenio Severín. 2017. “Technology and Child Development: Evidence from the One Laptop per Child Program.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 9 (3): 295–320. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150385.
- Dee, Thomas S. 2024. “Higher Chronic Absenteeism Threatens Academic Recovery from the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 121 (3): e2312249121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2312249121.
- Dee, Thomas S., and Brian A. Jacob. 2011. “The Impact of No Child Left Behind on Student Achievement.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 30 (3): 418–46. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.20586.
- Delgado, Pablo, Cristina Vargas, Rakefet Ackerman, and Ladislao Salmerón. 2018. “Don’t Throw Away Your Printed Books: A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Reading Media on Reading Comprehension.” Educational Research Review 25: 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003.
- Durrant, Gabriele B., and Sylke V. Schnepf. 2018. “Which Schools and Pupils Respond to Educational Achievement Surveys? A Focus on the English Programme for International Student Assessment Sample.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A: Statistics in Society 181 (4): 1057–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/rssa.12337.
- Dutton, Edward, Dimitri van der Linden, and Richard Lynn. 2016. “The Negative Flynn Effect: A Systematic Literature Review.” Intelligence 59: 163–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.10.002.
- European School Education Platform. 2026. “Exploring Mobile Phone Use in Schools.” European School Education Platform, May 7, 2026. https://school-education.ec.europa.eu/en/discover/news/exploring-mobile-phone-use-schools.
- Eurydice. 2022. “Swedish Digitalisation Strategy for School Systems Led to Results.” European Education and Culture Executive Agency, July 13, 2022. https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/news/swedish-digitalisation-strategy-school-systems-led-results.
- Faverio, Michelle, and Olivia Sidoti. 2024. “Teens, Social Media and Technology 2024.” Pew Research Center, December 12, 2024. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2024/12/12/teens-social-media-and-technology-2024/.
- Figlio, David N., and Umut Özek. 2025. “The Impact of Cellphone Bans in Schools on Student Outcomes: Evidence from Florida.” NBER Working Paper 34388. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w34388/w34388.pdf.
- Fink, Aron, Christoph König, and Andreas Frey. 2024. “Methodological Aspects of the Highly Adaptive Testing Design for PISA.” Frontiers in Psychology 15: 1446799. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1446799.
- Fleischman, Howard L., Paul J. Hopstock, Marisa P. Pelczar, and Brooke E. Shelley. 2010. Highlights from PISA 2009: Performance of U.S. 15-Year-Old Students in Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy in an International Context. NCES 2011-004. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011004.pdf.
- Fletcher, Jason M. 2008. “Adolescent Depression: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Educational Attainment.” Health Economics 17 (11): 1215–35. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1319.
- Gebhardt, Eveline, and Raymond J. Adams. 2007. “The Influence of Equating Methodology on Reported Trends in PISA.” Journal of Applied Measurement 8 (3): 305–22.
- GEM Report Team. 2025. “To Ban or Not to Ban? Monitoring Countries’ Regulations on Smartphone Use in School.” World Education Blog (UNESCO Global Education Monitoring Report), January 23, 2025. https://world-education-blog.org/2025/01/23/to-ban-or-not-to-ban-monitoring-countries-regulations-on-smartphone-use-in-school/.
- Gershenson, Seth, Alison Jacknowitz, and Andrew Brannegan. 2017. “Are Student Absences Worth the Worry in U.S. Primary Schools?” Education Finance and Policy 12 (2): 137–65. https://doi.org/10.1162/EDFP_a_00207.
- Gneezy, Uri, John A. List, Jeffrey A. Livingston, Xiangdong Qin, Sally Sadoff, and Yang Xu. 2017. “Measuring Success in Education: The Role of Effort on the Test Itself.” Framed Field Experiments 00614. The Field Experiments Website. http://fieldexperiments-papers2.s3.amazonaws.com/papers/00614.pdf. Published as American Economic Review: Insights 1 (3): 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20180633.
- Gneezy, Uri, John A. List, Jeffrey A. Livingston, Xiangdong Qin, Sally Sadoff, and Yang Xu. 2019. “Measuring Success in Education: The Role of Effort on the Test Itself.” American Economic Review: Insights 1 (3): 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20180633.
- Goldhaber, Dan, Thomas J. Kane, Andrew McEachin, Emily Morton, Tyler Patterson, and Douglas O. Staiger. 2022. “The Consequences of Remote and Hybrid Instruction during the Pandemic.” CALDER Working Paper 267-0522. Washington, DC: National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research, American Institutes for Research. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED620476.pdf.
- Goldstein, Harvey. 2004. “International Comparisons of Student Attainment: Some Issues Arising from the PISA Study.” Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice 11 (3): 319–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594042000304618.
- Hall, Caroline, and Martin Lundin. 2023. “Teaching, Technology and Test Scores: The Impact of Personal Computers on Student Performance in Primary School.” IFAU Working Paper 2023:3. Uppsala: Institute for Evaluation of Labour Market and Education Policy. https://www.ifau.se/globalassets/pdf/se/2023/wp-2023-3-teaching-technology-and-test-scores.pdf.
- Hall, Caroline, Martin Lundin, and Kristina Sibbmark. 2021. “A Laptop for Every Child? The Impact of Technology on Human Capital Formation.” Labour Economics 69: 101957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101957.
- Hanushek, Eric A., and Ludger Woessmann. 2012. “Do Better Schools Lead to More Growth? Cognitive Skills, Economic Outcomes, and Causation.” Journal of Economic Growth 17 (4): 267–321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-012-9081-x. First circulated as NBER Working Paper 14633 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009), https://www.nber.org/papers/w14633.
- Harvard Graduate School of Education. 2026. “New Education Scorecard Finds ‘U-Shaped Recovery.’” May 13, 2026. https://www.gse.harvard.edu/ideas/news/26/05/new-education-scorecard-finds-u-shaped-recovery.
- Heller Sahlgren, Gabriel. 2015. “Invandringen och Sveriges resultatfall i PISA” [Immigration and Sweden’s PISA decline]. IFN Policy Paper 71. Stockholm: Research Institute of Industrial Economics (Institutet för Näringslivsforskning). https://www.ifn.se/media/bn3m5vo3/pp71.pdf.
- Heller-Sahlgren, Gabriel, and Henrik Jordahl. 2021. “Test Scores and Economic Growth: Update and Extension.” IFN Working Paper 1408. Stockholm: Research Institute of Industrial Economics. https://ideas.repec.org/p/hhs/iuiwop/1408.html.
- Hopfenbeck, Therese N., Jenny Lenkeit, Yasmine El Masri, Kate Cantrell, Jeanne Ryan, and Jo-Anne Baird. 2018. “Lessons Learned from PISA: A Systematic Review of Peer-Reviewed Articles on the Programme for International Student Assessment.” Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 62 (3): 333–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2016.1258726.
- Humpherson, Ed. 2021. “Ed Humpherson to Professor John Jerrim: Request to Undertake an Independent Review of the PISA Data across the UK.” Letter, May 27, 2021. London: Office for Statistics Regulation. https://osr.statisticsauthority.gov.uk/correspondence/ed-humpherson-response-to-professor-john-jerrim-request-to-undertake-an-independent-review-of-the-pisa-data-across-the-uk.
- Ingram, Jenni, Jamie Stiff, Stuart Cadwallader, Gabriel Lee, and Heather Kayton. 2023. PISA 2022: National Report for England. DfE Research Report RR1392. London: Department for Education. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/656dc3321104cf0013fa742f/PISA_2022_England_National_Report.pdf.
- International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). n.d. “PIAAC Cycle 2 Results.” ILSA Gateway. Accessed September 14, 2026. https://ilsa-gateway.org/studies/results/1595.
- Jack, Rebecca, Clare Halloran, James Okun, and Emily Oster. 2023. “Pandemic Schooling Mode and Student Test Scores: Evidence from US School Districts.” American Economic Review: Insights 5 (2): 173–90. https://doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20210748.
- Jackson, C. Kirabo, and Claire L. Mackevicius. 2024. “What Impacts Can We Expect from School Spending Policy? Evidence from Evaluations in the United States.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 16 (1): 412–46. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20220279.
- Jackson, C. Kirabo, Cora Wigger, and Heyu Xiong. 2021. “Do School Spending Cuts Matter? Evidence from the Great Recession.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 13 (2): 304–35. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180674.
- Jakubowski, Maciej, Tomasz Gajderowicz, and Harry A. Patrinos. 2025. “COVID-19, School Closures, and Student Learning Outcomes: New Global Evidence from PISA.” npj Science of Learning 10: 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-025-00297-3.
- Jerrim, John, John Micklewright, Jörg-Henrik Heine, Christine Sälzer, and Caroline McKeown. 2018. “PISA 2015: How Big Is the ‘Mode Effect’ and What Has Been Done about It?” Oxford Review of Education 44 (4): 476–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2018.1430025. Accepted manuscript, UCL Discovery, https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10039757/.
- Jerrim, John, Philip Parker, Alvaro Choi, Anna Katyn Chmielewski, Christine Sälzer, and Nikki Shure. 2018. “How Robust Are Cross-Country Comparisons of PISA Scores to the Scaling Model Used?” Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice 37 (4): 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12211.
- Jerrim, John, Philip Parker, Álvaro Choi, Anna K. Chmielewski, Christine Sälzer, and Nikki Shure. 2018. “How Robust Are Cross-Country Comparisons of PISA Scores to the Scaling Model Used?” Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice 37 (4): 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12211. Accepted manuscript, UCL Discovery, https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10049242/.
- Jerrim, John. 2018. “Is PISA Still a Fair Basis for Comparison? Some Serious Questions Have Emerged.” FFT Education Datalab (blog), January 26, 2018. https://ffteducationdatalab.org.uk/2018/01/is-pisa-still-a-fair-basis-for-comparison-some-serious-questions-have-emerged/.
- Jerrim, John. 2021. “PISA 2018 in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales: Is the Data Really Representative of All Four Corners of the UK?” Review of Education 9 (3): e3270. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3270. Accepted manuscript, UCL Discovery, https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10141316/.
- Kamens, David H. 2015. “A Maturing Global Testing Regime Meets the World Economy: Test Scores and Economic Growth, 1960–2012.” Comparative Education Review 59 (3): 420–46. https://doi.org/10.1086/681989.
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- Kelly, Dana, Holly Xie, Christine Winquist Nord, Frank Jenkins, Jessica Ying Chan, and David Kastberg. 2013. Performance of U.S. 15-Year-Old Students in Mathematics, Science, and Reading Literacy in an International Context: First Look at PISA 2012. NCES 2014-024. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014024rev.pdf.
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